by Margaret Lunney, RN, PhD
Professor, College of Staten Island, Distinguished Writer, Sigma Theta
Tau International
Writing and Self Advancement
Writing and Advancement of the Discipline/Profession
Types of Writing That Can Make A Difference
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Scientific Writing: More Than What You Learned in English Composition
Scientific writing requires:
Exquisite Clarity of Ideas
Scientific topics are complex, so clarity depends on following the basic rules of writing:
Simplicity
CredibilityThe secret of good writing is to strip every sentence to its cleanest components. Every word that serves no function, every long word that could be a short word, every adverb that carries the same meaning that is already in the verb, every passive construction that leaves the reader unsure of who is doing what—these are the thousand and one adulterants that weaken a sentence. And they usually occur, ironically, in proportion to education and rank.
W. Zinsser (1976). On writing well (p. 6). New York: Harper & Row
Specific Styles & StructuresIn science, the writer needs to be perceived by the reader as a credible source of information. Don’t overstate your case.
Strunk, W. & White, E.B. (1979). The elements of style (3rd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
“If the reader catches you in just one bogus statement that you are trying to pass off as true, everything you write thereafter is suspect.” (Zinsser, p.100)
Articulation of a Position
Supporting Your Position
Use of Theory and Research
Analysis and Synthesis of Evidence
In the analysis:
In the synthesis:
In the analysis and synthesis:
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Documentation of Sources
Weak
Powerlessness is the perception that one’s own action will not significantly affect an outcome. When one or more of the power resources (i.e., physical strength, psychological stamina, self concept, energy, knowledge, motivation and belief systems) are compromised, powerlessness is a potential problem (Miller, 1992).
Improved (move reference to after first sentence)
Powerlessness is the perception that one’s own action will not significantly affect an outcome (Miller, 1992). When one or more of the power resources (i.e., physical …….
“[In scientific writing] . . . a complex subject can be made as accessible . . . as a simple subject. It’s just a question of putting one sentence after another. The “after,” however, is unusually important. Nowhere else must you work so hard to write sentences that form a linear sequence. This is no place for fanciful leaps or implied truths.” — W. Zinsser, p. 102
Writing Samples
Writing an introduction
In introductory paragraph(s), the writer prepares the reader for the relevance of the topic and the purpose of the paper (theme statement). The introduction ends with the statement of purpose. The statement of purpose summarizes the content (or main headings) of the paper.
From a Paper, “Expanding the Concept of Health Outcomes”
Current trends in the United States (U.S.) health care system indicate that the prevailing ideas of "what is a health outcome" and "how are outcomes measured" may become formalized as health policy. These trends include the impetus to establish a Computer-based Patient Record (CPR) (Institute of Medicine, 1997) and the appointment of a committee to establish a national framework for quality (United Hospital Fund, 1998). This is a crucial period, then, for nurse leaders in the US to address the need for change in the prevailing view of health outcomes. Currently, the narrow and limited scope of the concept of health outcomes is insufficient to reflect the health outcomes of consumers or the models, theories, and practices of nurses. Since the concept of health outcomes provides an important foundation for measuring the quality of health care, including nursing care, the concept should be expanded to include broader views of health than the clinical model and to accept qualitative data in the measurement of outcomes. The purposes of this paper are to briefly summarize the history of this concept, provide an expanded definition or view of the concept, discuss the driving forces for an expanded view, and suggest strategies for nurses to promote an expanded view.
— Margaret Lunney and Patricia Munhall, 1997From a Paper, “An Historical Perspective on Lillian Wald’s Life and Legacy”
Public health nursing is a specialty within nursing that was initiated in the 1800’s by Lillian Wald. Wald was a practical idealist who worked to create a just society. Her goal was to ensure that women and children, immigrants and the poor, and members of all ethnic groups would realize America’s promise of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. Although Wald received international recognition, her efforts were grounded in the belief that the world was simply an expanded version of a culturally diverse neighborhood (Coss, 1989). The purpose of this paper is to describe Wald’s contributions to society, the obstacles she faced and remediated, societal influences on her life, and the relationship of her contributions to nursing today.
— Yolanda Lewis, April 1999
Writing an analysis of a research study
Research findings are provided to support the position of your paper. Most studies can be summarized in one paragraph or less. Include information that shows you have critiqued the study (e.g., research design, sample size, procedures, validity and reliability of instruments) and the study results are valid for making a point.
From Critical thinking and Nursing Diagnosis: Case Studies and Analyses
In a study of task complexity and decision making consistency, Hughes and Young (1990) found that task complexity was associated with lower degrees of consistency in decision making. Three case studies were developed to represent increasing levels of uncertainty and complexity. A stratified random sample of 101 paid staff nurse volunteers, part and full time, participated in the study. The findings were that decision making consistency decreased as the complexity of the task increased. This study also showed that decision making varies with each task and that decision making expertise is task-specific (i.e., experience with a specific decision making task improves decision making ability).
Writing an analysis of theory and research
From “Psychosocial Adaptation to Diabetes: Ethnic African-American Elders”
Ethnic origin is a major factor in determining prevalence and predicting incidence of diseases (Healthy People 2010, 1998), health practices (Hellman, Baker, Flores, Lehamn, & Bacon, 1997; Weller, et al., 1999) and illness responses (Harris, et al., 1999; Eberhardt, 1999). The literature, however, is limited and unclear as to the role that ethnic origin plays in influencing responses to a health problem, such as diabetes. For example, Hellman and colleagues (1997) examined six groups from different ethnicities and concluded that birth orgin had no significant effect on adherence to diabetes regimen. Similarly, Degazon (1995) examined older African Americans from Southern US and the Caribbean and found that there were no ethnic differences in coping with diabetes. On the other hand, prevalence of diabetes and coronary risk factors among major ethnic groups in Singapore (Tan, Emmanuel, Tan, & Jacob, 1998) and glucose intolerance among African-origin groups in Britain (Mbanya et al, 1999) were attributed to place of birth.
— Cynthia Degazon, 1999
From: “Clinical Validation of Ineffective Breathing Pattern, Ineffective Airway Clearance, and Impaired Gas Exchange” (published in Image)
The diagnoses of IBP, IAC, and IGE were added to NANDA in 1980 (NANDA, 1994). Since that time, research has demonstrated that these diagnoses are among the most frequent nursing diagnoses made in various settings and with various age groups (Collard, Jones, Murphy & Fitzmaurice, 1987; Gordon & Hiltunen, 1995; Hoskins, McFarlane, Rubenfeld, Schreier, & Walsh, 1986; Lutjens, 1993; Stein, 1987). The high prevalence of these diagnoses is expected because persons with many and varied medical problems, not just respiratory, are at risk of these responses (Hanley & Tyler, 1987; Hoffman, 1987; Kim & Larson, 1987; Shekleton & Nield, 1987). Other clinical conditions, e.g., surgery and decreased mobility, may also have negative effects on respiratory responses (Hopp & Williams, 1987; Robichaud, 1990).
— Carlson-Catalano et al., 1998
Writing a synthesis of the literature
From “Quality of Life and Breast Cancer”
The clinical research regarding quality of life for persons with cancer has been extensive. In general, studies focused on persons with cancer (Lewis, 1982; Rustoen, Moum, Wiklund, & Hanestad, 1999); persons with specific types of cancer (Bertero & Ek, 1993; Ferrell, Grant, Funk, Garcia, Otis-Green, & Schaffner, 1996); cancer treatments (Belec, 1992; Esper, Hampton, Smith, & Pientra, 1999; Ferrell, Wisdom, Wenzl, & Brown, 1989), and surviving cancer (Dow, Ferrell, Haberman, & Eaton, 1999; Ferrans, 1994; Ferrell, et al, 1995; Wyatt & Friedman, 1996). Studies of the quality of life for women breast cancer survivors focus on the acute stage (during treatment), long-term stage, or a mix of stages (acute, extended, or long-term).
A number of instruments have been developed to measure quality of life (Ferrans & Powers, 1985; Ganz, Schag, & Cheng, 1990; Padilla, Preseant, Grant, Metter, Lipsett, & Heide, 1983; Priestman & Baum, 1976). Instruments were developed using a variety of samples, for example, well persons (Ferrans & Powers, 1985); treatment groups (Padilla et al, 1983); and women with breast cancer (Ganz, Schag, & Cheng, 1990; Priestman & Baum, 1976). Ferrans (1990a) developed the Quality of Life Index-Cancer Version (QLI-CV) based on earlier work with well persons (Ferrans & Powers, 1985) and tested the QLI-CV with a sample of 20 women with breast cancer.
— Arlene Farren, 1998
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